Moreover, reticulocytes infected with https://www.selleckchem.com/products/bay80-6946.html Plasmodium yoelii released exosomes capable of activating a protective anti-malaria immune response in naïve mice in an adjuvant-independent

manner [39]. Our present data, demonstrating the protective efficacy of exosomes in controlling an M. tuberculosis infection, supports the potential application for this type of cell-free vaccine. Unexpectedly, we did not see much protection with the BCG 9 months after vaccination. Examination of the data suggests that the BCG-vaccinated mice showed only a slightly lower CFU compared to unvaccinated mice (i.e. PBS control versus BCG, or BCG plus exosomes from untreated macrophages). However, the 0.3 log drop in spleen CFU between BCG-vaccinated and nonvaccinated mice was statistically significant. In a number of published studies, there was

protection by the initial BCG vaccination even in the absences of a booster vaccine. In most of these studies, a shorter window between BCG vaccination and boosting was used [40, 41]. Nevertheless, in some studies where protection with the primary BCG vaccination was observed, the intervals between BCG vaccination and M. tuberculosis infection were on the same learn more timeframe as in our study [42]. Interestingly, in the study by Dietrich et al. a similar ∼0.3 log drop in spleen CFU was observed when comparing unvaccinated mice to those vaccinated with BCG 8 months prior to M. tuberculosis infection [42]. These results suggest that in some cases, the protection may be minimal Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II after a long interval between vaccination and infection. The incomplete protection we observed is likely due to limited antigen-specific memory T cells available for reactivation 9 months after the initial BCG vaccination (see Fig. 7). It is unclear

why we see this limited immune/protective response but one hypothesis is that our BCG strain failed to survive in vivo for the time necessary to induce a potent long-term memory response. Previous studies of BCG-vaccinated mice treated with antibiotics suggest that viable BCG is required for vaccine efficacy [43]. For most individuals, M. tuberculosis infection induces a protective TH1-mediated immune response characterized by the development of antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes producing IFN-γ and other TH1-type cytokines [28]. During the subunit vaccine studies, it was evident that the control of an M. tuberculosis infection required an adjuvant that induces a robust TH1 but limited TH2 immune response [44, 45]. It has been demonstrated that exosomes carrying parasitic or tumor antigens could generate a strong antigen-specific TH1 immune responses resulting in control of the parasitic infection or in limiting tumor progression [29-31]. Our previous studies indicated that exosomes released from M.