Les localisations extrahépatiques et extrapulmonaires les plus fréquentes sont : le cerveau, le rein, l’os et les tissus mous [2]. La recherche d’autres localisations, notamment hépatique et pulmonaire, par une radiographie du thorax et une échographie abdominale, s’impose. La localisation hydatique mammaire représente 0,27 % de l’ensemble des kystes hydatiques, 2,5 % des localisations inhabituelles [3] et 0,3 % des tumeurs

mammaires [4]. L’hydatidose mammaire touche essentiellement la femme entre 30 et 50 ans. Elle se caractérise par sa longue période de latence clinique. Ainsi, le diagnostic est souvent tardif et la découverte peut être fortuite [3] and [8]. Typiquement, le kyste hydatique mammaire est souvent de find more découverte fortuite [5] and [6], se présente comme un PF-02341066 datasheet nodule de consistance rénitente ou ferme, de taille variable, à contours nets, mobile et souvent indolore. Il est parfois calcifié et sans phénomène inflammatoire ni adénopathie. Le kyste est infecté mal limité et pseudotumoral dans 5 % des cas simulant ainsi un abcès ou éventuellement une tumeur maligne [4] and [7]. La mammographie peut mettre en évidence un aspect hautement évocateur : opacité dense homogène bien circonscrite par un liseré de calcifications

ou calcifiée dans sa quasi-totalité [3]. L’échographie permet de visualiser le kyste et d’en définir cinq types selon la classification de Gharbi [9]. Toutefois, des aspects moins caractéristiques peuvent être observés, faisant suspecter d’autres affections, en particulier tumorales. Dans ces cas, l’imagerie par résonance magnétique trouve son intérêt en montrant un aspect de lésion kystique bien circonscrite associée à un rehaussement

capsulaire évocateur de kyste hydatique [10]. Ainsi, le diagnostic de kyste hydatique du sein n’est Thalidomide retenu en préopératoire que dans 25 % des cas. La confirmation se fonde alors sur les données histologiques, à savoir une paroi composée de deux membranes propres : cuticule et membrane germinative. La cytoponction du kyste a été réalisée par certains auteurs ; toutefois, le risque de dissémination constitue une limite à ce geste. Le traitement de l’hydatidose mammaire reste chirurgical. Il consiste en une exérèse du kyste avec périkystectomie qui protégerait contre son effraction, source potentielle de réinfestation. Seule une prophylaxie efficace dans le but de rompre le cycle de l’E. granulosus permettra de voir régresser cette pathologie Aucune chirurgie reconstructrice n’est proposée même dans les cas de kystes géants du sein. La cytoponction du kyste n’a aucune place dans le traitement [10]. Le pronostic est bon et la récidive est exceptionnelle [10]. Les auteurs n’ont pas transmis de déclaration de conflits d’intérêts.

This CCN2 induction seems to be mediated in part by macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), also suggesting an unexpected anabolic functional aspect of this molecule in cartilage [47]. According to the fact that

CCN2 promotes the proliferation and ECM-molecule production of articular chondrocytes in vitro, it is reasonable to consider that CCN2 is induced to reconstruct the damaged articular cartilage. Conversely, cartilaginous ECM degradation is directly carried out by proteases, such as MMPs and ADAM-TS5. It is known that mechanical injury buy A-1210477 induces the production of FGF-2 in articular cartilage, which subsequently provokes the production of a number of MMPs including MMP-13. It is important to note that a recent

study revealed the molecular interplay between CCN2 and FGF-2 in cartilage [48]. Thus, CCN2 is believed to reorganize the articular cartilage architecture against external stress to maintain its integrity under collaboration with other signaling molecules such as FGF-2. Upon oral tissue injury, the Idelalisib wounded areas are primarily filled with blood clot with polymerized fibrin molecules formed through the activation of platelets and the coagulation cascade. Subsequently, fibroblasts migrate therein and occasionally differentiate into myofibroblasts to produce fibrotic ECM molecules such as type I collagen. This process may be followed by the contraction of the wounded area by α-smooth muscle actin-positive myofibroblasts. During this tissue regeneration process, CCN2 is supplied by multiple sources and plays central roles in the regeneration. Although CCN2 is abundantly encapsulated in platelets and released upon activation of them [25], it is also endogenously

produced by the cells around the injured area. In fact, strong expression of the CCN2 gene is observed in the tooth extraction sockets [49], as well as in the wounded dermal tissue [50]. Data obtained in vitro showed that CCN2 enhances the synthesis of type I collagen in fibroblasts and periodontal ligament cells [51] and [52], further supporting Protirelin this notion. Tissue fibrosis, which is characterized by the abnormal accumulation of a vast amount of fibrous ECM and functional deficiency, can be regarded as an unsuccessful outcome of continuous tissue remodeling toward reconstruction. Consistently, CCN2 is known to be a key molecule that develops fibrotic disorders in a variety of organs. The target organs in humans include most tissues and organs including liver, kidney, lungs, pancreas, and heart as well as orofacial tissues, save for neuronal and genital ones [1], [4] and [7]. Over the past 10 years, CCN2 has been attracting the interest of dermatologists, since it mediates the pathological changes observed in progressive systemic sclerosis or scleroderma [4], [53] and [54].

2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 It provides stability of the upper dental arch, gives bone support for the teeth adjacent to the cleft area, supports the lip and the nose, restores INCB018424 datasheet facial asymmetry, closes the residual oronasal fistula, and provides bone support for dental implants in prosthetic rehabilitation.7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 Different imaging methods have been used to define

the real extension of alveolar and palatal defects and the amount of bone graft necessary to restore oral clefts.6, 12 and 13 The increasing use of volumetric imaging examinations in dentistry has enabled a better understanding of the morphologic structures aiding diagnosis and treatment of various processes that affect this region. Computerized tomography (CT) allows precise assessments of the shape, quality (cortical and cancellous), height, and thickness of the bone by using multiplanar reconstructions. According to Scarfe et al.,14 cone-beam CT (CBCT) provides real-time creation of images in several planes simultaneously (multiplanar reconstructions) and parasagittal sections through imaging volume, with broad applications in clinical practice, mainly for planning of dental implants and diagnosis of dental alveolar fractures, pathologies, and developmental anomalies of the maxillofacial

CDK inhibitor region. Recently the use of 3-dimensional (3D) reconstructed images associated with a navigation system in independent workstations improved preoperative assessment

and evaluated the results of the alveolar graft Idoxuridine procedure along time by using linear and volumetric measurements of the cleft.9, 15 and 16 The aim of the present study was to determine the applicability of multislice CT (MSCT) and CBCT to obtain the volume of bone defects in dry skulls and to compare both imaging modalities. The present study was submitted to and approved by the Committee of Ethics and Research of our institution, under protocol 120/2008. Nine dry skulls were used to make bone defects in the region of the alveolar ridge and hard palate mimicking unilaterally transforamen clefts. Bone defects were initially designed in the skulls with permanent marker pen, serving as a guide to perform the cuts. Using a pneumatic saw (Micro 100 reciprocating pneumatic handpiece; Zimmer, Hall, Linvatec Corp., Largo, FL, USA) pressurized by a cylinder of compressed air, bone defects were made differing in size, shape, and position between left and right (Fig. 1). The site of the simulated cleft was selected by simulating the common area of the surgical procedure, and the size was made by following the same procedure. No specific reason was attended for the site and the size of bone defect. All bone defects produced were modeled with wax following the contralateral shape of alveolar ridge and hard palate (Fig. 2).

The present study was designed

to investigate the protective effects of spices against hydrogen peroxide- and nicotine-induced toxicity. Plant phenolic compounds are the most abundant class of natural products. The redox properties of phenolic hydroxyl groups are responsible for the radical scavenging activity of plant phenols. Hence, plants rich in phenols promote beneficial health effects in humans (Balasundram, Sundram, & Samman, 2006). In the present study, the total phenolic content of nine spices was analysed using the Folin–Ciocalteau method. All the spices showed high phenolic content, particularly, long pepper, pepper, clove and ginger (Fig. 1). Long pepper contains 2405 mg of gallic acid equivalents/100 g SCH727965 of dry weight of the spice, whereas cardamom, cumin, caraway, fennel and star anise ranged between 1131 and 1475 mg of GAE/100 g dry weight. The major types of phenols present in spices are phenolic

acids, phenolic diterpenes and flavonoids (Shan, Cai, Sun, & Corke, 2006). Most of these phenols are powerful antioxidants and exert various BEZ235 mw biological activities. In humans, the reactive oxygen species (ROS), including superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical, are continuously produced during normal respiratory processes. They induce lipid peroxidation, damage DNA and can lead to several degenerative disorders (Halliwell & Gutteridge, 1990). The effect of common spices on hydrogen peroxide- and nicotine-induced toxicity was analysed in this study. A dose-activity assay was first performed to select the concentration of H2O2 to be used in subsequent experiments. Cells (3T3-L1) treated with 25, 50 and 100 μM of H2O2 showed a dose dependent increase in tail length (Fig. 2). The maximum tail length (7.88 ± 0.78 μm) was shown by 100 μM H2O2 treatment and therefore this concentration was used to test the DNA protective properties of spices. Cells

pre-treated with different spice extracts (except pepper) at 5, 25 and 50 μg/ml, showed a significant Sclareol decrease (p < 0.05) in comet tail length compared to the control of H2O2 treatment alone ( Table 1). At low concentrations (5 μg/ml), long pepper, caraway, clove, cardamom and ginger showed significant DNA protecting activity (8–47%) whereas the other spices like star anise, fennel and cumin showed significant DNA protecting activity only at higher concentrations (25 and 50 μg/ml). Caraway, cardamom and ginger showed DNA protecting activity in all the concentrations tested whereas no significant activity was observed in cells treated with pepper. Previous studies on pepper reported the presence of a highly genotoxic alkaloid called piperine ( Madrigal-Bujaidar, Barriga, Mota, Guzman, & Cassani, 1997). Hence, the inability of pepper to protect DNA from H2O2-induced DNA damage can be attributed to the presence of toxic alkaloids.

After each step, seeds were gently washed with distilled water three times. All procedures were performed aseptically

in a laminar hood. To induce adventitious roots, cotyledons separated from sterilized stratified seeds were cultured on a solid Schenk and Hildebrandt (SH) medium containing 2.0 mg/L indole butyric acid, 3% sucrose, and 0.23% Gelrite. After 1 month, induced adventitious A 1210477 roots were separated from cotyledon explants and cultured again for secondary growth on the same medium. Then, the roots were transferred to a 30 mL liquid SH medium supplemented with 3.0 mg/L indole butyric acid and 5% sucrose, and maintained on a rotary Selleckchem Idelalisib shaker (100 rpm) at 25°C in the dark. For further mass production, 12 g fresh adventitious roots in suspension culture were inoculated into a 2 L airlift balloon-type bioreactor (Biopia, Korea) containing 1 L of the same SH medium as that used for liquid suspension culture (Fig. 1). The medium was replaced with a fresh medium after 2 weeks, and 4 weeks

later, 12 g adventitious roots were subcultured into a new bioreactor. After 10 days of cultivation, the subcultured adventitious roots were used for total RNA extraction with the Plant RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Approximately 2 μg total RNA from each cultivar was used for sequencing on the Illumina platform after the quality and quantity were checked using spectrophotometry. Paired-end reads with an average

length of 101 bp were generated for CP and CS using the Illumina Hiseq2000 platform. Library construction and sequencing were performed by the National Instrumentation Center and Environmental Management (NICEM), Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea. Protirelin The sequence data generated in this study have been deposited in the Short Read Archive (SRA) of the NCBI under the accession number SRA061905. The sequencing reads underwent various stringent quality controls, such as filtering of high-quality reads and removal of reads with an adaptor or primer-contaminated sequence using the NGS QC toolkit [17]. All de novo assemblies were performed on a server with 48 cores and 512 GB random access memory. Publicly available transcriptome and genome assemblers were used to assemble the paired-end reads. Among the transcriptome assemblers, the open source program, Oases [18] (version: 0.2.06; http://www.ebi.ac.uk/∼zerbino/oases), which uploads a preliminary assembly produced by Velvet, was validated for k-mer optimization. Various assembly parameters were also examined to yield statistically as well as biologically significant results.

The analytical column was a Poroshell PhenylHexyl column 150 × 2.1 mm, 3 μm column (Agilent Technologies). A mobile phase gradient programme was applied, using 0.1% formic acid in water and methanol, respectively. The injection volume was 3.5 μl. Quantitative and qualitative

analysis were performed by external calibration (0.334 to 1000 ng ml−1) and compared with the retention times and quantifier ion/qualifier ion ratios obtained by analysing NA standard solution and/or spiked QC samples (Herrmann et al., 2014). By increasing the ingoing amount of nitrite (0, 60, 100, 150, 250, 350 mg kg−1) the levels of NHPRO, NPRO, NTCA, NMTCA (Fig. 1A), NSAR and NPIP PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor clinical trial (Fig. 1C) increased in the sausages. A steep increase in the level of NMTCA was observed by adding 60 mg kg−1. Higher levels of nitrite only increased the NMTCA levels slightly, indicating that other factors than nitrite is the limiting factor for the formation of NMTCA. In sausages prepared with 150 mg kg−1 nitrite, which

is the amount of nitrite allowed to be added to sausages for the common European market (https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/sanco_foods), NPIP (Fig. 1C), NHPRO, NPRO, NTCA and NMTCA (Fig. 1A) were found in levels of approximately 2, 10, mTOR inhibitor 40, 70 and 25 μg kg−1, respectively. NSAR was at LOD if more than 150 mg kg−1 nitrite was added, and by further increasing the nitrite level a clear increase in the NSAR level was found (Fig. 1C). The levels of NDMA and NPYR were relatively unaffected by the increase in added nitrite. The levels of NDMA and NPYR remained at or below 2 μg kg−1, which is at the limit of quantification (LOQ) for the method applied (Herrmann et al., 2014). Increasing the level of nitrite was also found by others to have a limited effect on the level of NDMA (Drabik-Markiewicz et al., 2011). If the sausages were further

prepared by pan frying (Fig. 1B and C) the levels of NSAR, NPIP (Fig. 1D), NTCA and NMTCA (Fig. 1B) increased by up to about 2, 2, 1.5 and 4 times, respectively. For NTCA the difference in the content between the not fried (Fig. 1A) and the fried sausages (Fig. 1B) increased with increasing amount of ingoing nitrite. This resulted in a more Sulfite dehydrogenase linear correlation between added nitrite and NTCA level and with a steeper slope than found for the not fried sausages. For these fried sausages a slightly higher level of NDMA and NPYR were indicated for the sausages prepared with 60 or 100 mg kg−1 nitrite than in those prepared without nitrite (Fig. 1D). In the sausages prepared with 150 mg kg−1 nitrite the levels of NPIP (Fig. 1D), NHPRO, NPRO, NTCA and NMTCA (Fig. 1B) amounted to 2.6, 10, 40, 70 and 80 μg kg−1, thus frying induced an increase in the NPIP (2.6 μg kg−1) and the NMTCA (80 μg kg−1) levels.

Biomarkers of effect categorized as “Undetermined Consequences” reflect a less certain pathway linking Selleckchem PD-L1 inhibitor alterations

to any specific disease outcome (www.epa.gov/pesticides/science/biomarker.html). Predictions of outcomes therefore, for either individuals or populations, are less certain when using these biomarkers in place of bioindicators. A Tier 1 biomarker of effect is a bioindicator of a key event in an AOP. A Tier 2 biomarker of effect has been shown to have a relationship to health outcomes but the mechanism of action is not understood. Biomarkers of effect that have undetermined consequences are considered Tier 3. A single biomarker of exposure may be derived from multiple parent chemicals, making assessments of exposure to the parent chemical difficult to ascertain (Barr and Needham, 2002, Barr et al., 1999 and Barr et al., 2006). In terms of exposure assessment and interpretation of epidemiological research, this is especially problematic if the parent chemicals have different toxicities or modes of action. Further, an example of interference PARP inhibitor with assessing exposure to a parent chemical is the situation in which one of the metabolites also can be found in the environment (an exogenous source). 3-phenoxybenzoic

acid (3PBA) is an example of a short-lived chemical that highlights the importance of evaluation of specificity when assessing study quality. 3PBA is a metabolite of at least 18 synthetic pyrethroids (Barr et al., 2010 and Leng et 5-Fluoracil price al., 1997) and is also a potential metabolite

of the 3PBA environmental degradate 3-phenoxybenzyl alcohol. Thus, urinary 3PBA measurements represent exposure to multiple insecticides with varying degrees of neurotoxicity, in addition to exposure to an environmental degradate that is not known to be neurotoxic (Barr et al., 2010). Urinary 3PBA measurements can therefore provide a conservative estimate of pyrethroid exposure; however, it likely would not provide an accurate exposure estimate for neurotoxic effects related to pyrethroid insecticide exposure in the absence of additional exposure data. Thus, finding a relation between neurotoxicity and exposure would be more difficult since the true exposures are unknown. A Tier 1 study includes a biomarker of exposure that is derived from exposure to one parent chemical. A Tier 2 study includes a biomarker derived from multiple parent chemicals with similar types of adverse endpoints. A Tier 3 study includes a biomarker derived from multiple parent chemicals with varying types of adverse endpoints. The biomarker should be appreciably present in the matrix being analyzed (Calafat and Needham, 2008). A biomarker that is frequently non-detectable in a matrix – irrespective of exposure – is undesirable in environmental epidemiologic research as the results may be of limited utility. Several polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with four or more rings are suspected or known human carcinogens (e.g., benzo[a]pyrene). Standard analytical methods (e.g.

The preference for fixating “easy” agents is consistent with linear incrementality as it shows immediate effects of character-specific properties on early formulation. Importantly, differences in the distribution of early fixations in this time window were also modulated by Event codability (resulting in an interaction between Event and Agent codability in the by-participant analysis). The difference in fixations to “easy” and “hard” agents was larger in lower-codability events than in higher-codability events: speakers were less likely to fixate

“easy” agents in “easy” events than to fixate “easy” agents in “hard” events, but were more likely to fixate “hard” agents in “easy” events than to fixate “hard” agents in “hard” Dabrafenib nmr events. This shows sensitivity to character properties when

the event is hard to encode selleck chemicals and less sensitivity to character properties when the event is easy to encode, which is broadly consistent with hierarchical incrementality. Fixations between 400 and 1000 ms. Having fixated agents with priority at the outset of formulation (0–400 ms), speakers did not continue formulating sentences with an easy-to-name agent in subject position. Instead, they shifted their gaze back to the patient by 400 ms, suggesting that they also preferred to encode information about the second character relatively early in the formulation process. Fig. 3 shows that the shift of gaze away from the agent was larger in items with “easy” agents, so there were fewer fixations to “easy” agents than “hard” agents at the start of the 400–1000 ms time window (i.e., at 400–600 ms; a main effect of Agent codability; Table 3b). In contrast, when speakers fixated agents to a lesser

extent before 400 ms (“hard” agents), they were more likely to immediately turn their gaze to the agent after 400 ms. Between 400 and 1000 ms, speakers deployed their gaze to the agent in events with “easy” and “hard” agents alike. There was no interaction between Agent codability and Time bin, indicating that the slope of fixations in events with “easy” many and “hard” agents did not change over time: speakers continued fixating “harder” agents more than “easier” agents until 1000 ms. At the start of the 400–1000 ms time window (i.e., 400–600 ms), speakers were also less likely to fixate agents in “easier” events than “harder” events (a main effect of Event codability). An interaction with Time bin shows that fixations to the agent subsequently increased more quickly in “easier” events than “harder” events. Fixations between 1000 and 1800 ms (speech onset). Speakers began looking away from the agent approximately 1000 ms after picture onset, and the cross-over point after which they started fixating the patient preferentially occurred approximately 1800 ms into the trial (i.e.

, 2013a). Moreover, in genotype Koster we observed a high increment of Cr in the second rotation, as compared to Skado. This could be because Skado grew faster than Koster in the first rotation, and occupied the soil more rapidly. In the second rotation Skado had less space to grow, while Koster still had some soil to occupy. The potential of SRWC to sequester C in the soil has

been recently questioned by Walter et al. (2014). However, the belowground woody biomass (Stu + Cr + Mr) represents the second largest C pool of the SRWC system (Berhongaray, 2014). This long-term belowground biomass also contributed to the enhancement of the C sequestration OTX015 in vitro along the four years of the plantation (Pacaldo et al., 2014). The value observed for the C sequestration (240 g C m−2) was much higher than the 90 g C m−2 reported for an SRWC plantation in Canada (Arevalo et al., 2011). This might be due to the higher planting density at our site. Although the aboveground biomass for genotype Skado was 23% higher than for Koster, there were no differences in the total belowground biomass. Another study that compared aboveground contrasting genotypes also found that genotypes were less clearly contrasted belowground than aboveground (Dickmann et al., 1996). The root:shoot ratio exponentially decreased with basal area in a similar way for

both genotypes before and after coppice (pre- and post-coppice, Fig. 6). This interesting Dorsomorphin order observation rejected our second hypothesis of a change in the root:shoot ratio after a tree is converted from a single-stem to a multi-shoot system (i.e. from pre- to post-coppice). As for the Cr biomass the genotypic differences in root:shoot Exoribonuclease ratios were attributed to differences in the BA. For young Scots pines an increment of the root:shoot ratio with stem diameter increment was reported, in contrast to our findings (Xiao and Ceulemans, 2004). This could be explained by the fact that these evergreen

trees were growing on poor forest soils. Similar to various other studies (reviewed by Mokany et al., 2006) we found that the root:shoot ratio increased with increasing aboveground biomass. Biomass allocation (to above- versus belowground) was not under strong genetic control, in contrast to some other studies that compared different poplar genotypes (King et al., 1999 and Yin et al., 2005). In this study we compared, however, only two genotypes under non-limiting growth conditions. In this study we used the technique of core sampling for the determination of Fr biomass, and tree excavation for the biomass estimations of Mr and Cr. The core sampling methodology is recommended for the sampling of uniformly distributed roots, such as for Fr biomass (Levillain et al., 2011). With increasing root diameters the (spatial) variability of the lateral root distribution also increases; so the sampling of an increasing amount of soil volume enables a better sampling of this belowground heterogeneity.

In our study, however, B. amyloliquefaciens B2-5 reduced rot symptom development at the lower inoculum concentration (106 CFU/mL) with somewhat more prominent control efficacies than at the higher

one (108 CFU/mL; Fig. 7). This finding may be derived from there being no difference in the inhibition of the fungal conidial germination and equivalent fungal damages, as viewed in microscopy, between the inoculum concentrations and phytotoxicity Venetoclax purchase to ginseng root tissues at the higher inoculum concentration. Also the bacterial population increased initially and was maintained for a certain period of time on the ginseng root tissues inoculated with the pathogen in spite of its rapid decrease on the root tissues with no pathogen inoculation. These aspects suggest higher efficacy of the disease control at the lower inoculum concentrations than at higher ones, which may make BGB324 supplier the effective control of the disease possible by bacterial treatment with a relatively low inoculum concentration. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens B2-5 produced no pectinase at any temperature or at high inoculum concentrations in our study, even though it is the major enzyme responsible for tissue rots (or soft rots)

in various crops caused by pectinase-producing bacteria such as Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum [17]; this indicates that this bacterium is not a true root-rotting pathogen. The phytotoxicity of the bacterial isolate B2-5 to ginseng roots appearsed to be lower than that of previously studied Bacillus (Paenibacillus) species, although it induced definite rot symptoms on ginseng root tissues at high inoculum concentration (108 CFU/mL) and all species produced starch hydrolytic enzyme associated with ginseng root rot to some extent [33] and [41]. Bacillus and relatives are plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria that can have beneficial effects on plant growth [44], as proven by their control of a complex disease caused by

the root-knot nematode and fusarium wilt fungus [45]. The results of this study indicate that Bacillus amyloliquefaciens B2-5 has great potential as an efficient biocontrol agent for managing ginseng root rot caused by F. cf incarnatum. “
“Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a herb mostly used in Asia for its medicinal properties Endonuclease and functional food for over 1,000 years. It is found that ginseng contains a lot of bioactive ingredients such as acidic polysaccharides, ginsenosides, proteins, and phenolic compounds [1], [2] and [3]. In Asia, there are two traditional preparations of ginseng, white ginseng (WG) and red ginseng (RG), and they have been used for different purposes. WG is produced by sun drying of fresh ginseng and RG is manufactured by steaming fresh ginseng at 90–100°C for a reasonable time and then drying until the moisture content is less than 15%.