The only change to the method which we used for examining the posture effects within each separate experiment was that the analysis was now based on independent-samples Caspase inhibitor review t-tests which compared the Posture (Uncrossed-hands ‘UnX’ and Crossed-hands ‘X’) × Hemisphere (Contralateral ‘Con’ and Ipsilateral ‘Ipsi’) contrast waveforms observed in Experiment 1 vs. Experiment 2; such t-tests equate to the three-way interaction between Experiment,

Posture and Hemisphere. Figure 6 shows the time course of this three-way interaction according to the specific subtractive contrast: Positive values of this contrast occur when posture effects are relatively more contralaterally distributed in Experiment 1 and relatively more ipsilaterally distributed in Experiment 2. The vertical dashed line in Fig. 6 shows the onset of the significant interval. Thus, a significant effect of sight of the limbs (the variable manipulated between the two experiments) on the laterality of postural remapping started at 152 ms and was observed until the end of the interval find more tested, i.e. 200 ms (a sequence of consecutive

significant t-tests, all P < 0.05, over 38 ms in length was deemed significant by our Monte Carlo simulation). The mean first-order autocorrelation at lag 1 (estimated in our data, and used for our Monte Carlo simulations) was 0.97 for this analysis. This interaction reflects the different hemispheric distribution of postural effects observed in the two experiments reported above, and confirms that when participants have sight of the hands the first effect of posture on the SEP is observed over contralateral sites (Exp. 1), whereas when participants do not have sight of their hands the first effect of posture is observed over ipsilateral sites (Exp. 2). Keeping track of the layout of Pazopanib order one’s body and limbs is

of central importance, not just to guide action, but also in making sense of the multisensory environment (see Holmes & Spence, 2004; Bremner et al., 2008). Without processes of remapping across changes in body posture (i.e. processes which take account of movements of the limbs, the head or even the eyes in their sockets; see Pöppel, 1973), we would be hard-pressed to comprehend the spatial correspondences between stimuli which arise from the same objects, but which arrive to the brain through different sensory channels. Given the central importance of processes of postural remapping in sensory spatial representation, it is crucial to determine how and when these processes occur in the brain. To address these questions, the current study investigated how changes in body posture modulate the electrophysiological time course of somatosensory spatial processing.

Furthermore, the antibiotic PR9 showed the same Midostaurin mw molecular weight as PR10 (m/z 282) with the same molecular formula C12H14N2O2S2, suggesting isomeric compounds. The new dithiolopyrrolones (PR2, PR8, PR9 and PR10) were named, respectively, crotonyl-pyrrothine, sorbyl-pyrrothine, 2-hexonyl-pyrrothine and 2-methyl-3-pentenyl-pyrrothine. Our results showed that the antibacterial and antifungal activities of the newly obtained dithiolopyrrolones are related to their variable acyl groups. The antibiotic PR8 (sorbyl-pyrrothine) showed higher activity than other compounds against Gram-positive bacteria. The new

dithiolopyrrolone antibiotics showed a moderate activity against all fungi and yeasts tested (except for PR2 and PR9, which are not active against A. carbonarius, Decitabine molecular weight F. oxysporum f. sp. lini, F. graminearum or F. moniliforme). Interestingly,

the antibiotic 2-methyl-3-pentenyl-pyrrothine (PR10) showed higher activity against A. carbonarius and Candida albicans, than showed by any of the other dithiolopyrrolones produced by S. algeriensis. In fact, the biological activity of dithiolopyrrolones is strongly influenced by the nature of variable acyl groups, as reported previously (Oliva et al., 2001; Li et al., 2007; Guo et al., 2008). Furthermore, none of the newly obtained antibiotics showed any activity against Gram-negative bacteria; similar results have been obtained with other dithiolopyrrolones produced by S. algeriensis (Lamari et al., 2002a; Merrouche et al., 2010). “
“Seven plasmid-mediated 16S rRNA methyltransferases (MTases), RmtA, RmtB, RmtC,

RmtD, RmtE, ArmA, and NpmA, conferring aminoglycoside resistance have so far been found in Gram-negative pathogenic microorganisms. In the present study, by performing an RNase protection assay, primer extension, and HPLC, we confirmed that RmtC indeed methylates at the N7 position of nucleotide G1405 in 16S rRNA as found in ArmA and RmtB. RmtC has an MTase activity specific for the bacterial 30S ribosomal subunit consisting of 16S rRNA and several ribosomal proteins, but not for the naked 16S rRNA, as seen in ArmA, RmtB, and NpmA. All seven 16S rRNA MTases have been found exclusively CYTH4 in Gram-negative bacilli to date, and no plasmid-mediated 16S rRNA MTase has been reported in Gram-positive pathogenic microorganisms. Thus, we checked whether or not the RmtC could function in Gram-positive bacilli, and found that RmtC could indeed confer high-level resistance to gentamicin and kanamycin in Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. 16S rRNA MTases seemed to be functional to some extent in any bacterial species, regardless of the provenance of the 16S rRNA MTase gene responsible for aminoglycoside resistance.

An alternative route is via Access to Science courses designed for students who do not have traditional university entry requirements. The purpose of this research was to examine the MPharm admissions criteria and student progression to identify variables that maybe indicative of degree success. Four datasets corresponding to four concurrent years of admissions to the MPharm programme were examined (N = 381); Cohort 1 (N = 70), Cohort 2 (N = 107), Cohort 3 (N = 83) and Cohort 4 (N = 121). These cohorts were followed through their degree programme and data were captured both prior to admission (via UCAS forms) and during their studies (via academic records) including: age, gender,

nationality, JNK inhibitors high throughput screening prior qualifications, GCSE and A-level subjects and grades, years on the MPharm course, module and end of year results. All data were coded and entered IBM SPSS Statistics (version 17). Data cleaning was undertaken to ensure consistency between variables and coding regularity. Each cohort was analysed separately and in combination to enable both inter- and intra-cohort exploration. Data were examined using independent sample t-tests, one-way ANOVA, chi-square and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05 for all tests. Students who achieved an ‘A’ grade at A-level chemistry were significantly more likely to attain a better degree classification (p = 0.005). Students with A-level

mathematics or biology showed no difference in degree attainment. No check details advantage in final degree attainment was seen with students having A-levels in chemistry, biology and maths, compared to those with alternative A-level combinations. Students with prior degrees had no advantage over those with A-levels or those entering through the Access Course. Students going straight to university with A-levels were significantly different (p = 0.001) from those on the Access course, with a final degree percentage of 61.8 ± 5 compared to 57.7 ± 5 respectively. An

examination of factors predisposing students towards success or failure in their degree can help improve the Methane monooxygenase MPharm admissions process. There was a trend linking A-level grades, but not A-level choices, with degree classification, suggesting A-level grades are a good predictor of academic success, particularly in the first year of the programme. However this trend lessened after year one, suggesting the structure of the first year allowed students to improve their weaker areas. There was a significant difference between the degree classification of Access to Science students and A-level students. Further work is required to ascertain the additional needs of Access students to help them through the degree programme, and how they access the many support resources already in place within the college. The main limitation of the study was missing data in the admission records, which led to reduced sample sizes and possibly skewed results.

The nuclear envelope virtually breaks down by increasing its permeability during both mitosis and meiosis in S. pombe as well (Asakawa et al., 2010, 2011). These studies indicate that an intermediate type of cell division takes place in fission yeasts. The microtubule organizing centres (MTOCs) remain outside the nuclear envelope throughout the cell cycle in metazoans. This allows KT–MT interaction to take place only during mitosis. A metazoan KT is typically associated with multiple MTs (20–30 in humans; McDonald et al., 1992).

MTOCs, known as the spindle pole bodies (SPBs) in yeast, remain attached to the nuclear envelope throughout the cell cycle in Saccharomyces PLX3397 concentration cerevisiae (Byers & Goetsch, 1975). In addition, KTs remain attached to the MTs throughout the cell cycle in this organism. However, a temporary detachment of chromosomes from MTs occurs (for 1–2 min) at the time of CEN DNA replication in S phase in S. cerevisiae (Kitamura et al., 2007). After completion of CEN replication, a KT reassembles and reestablishes its

attachment with MTs. Subsequently, sister CENs precociously separate from each other (Goshima & Yanagida, 2000; Jaspersen & Winey, 2004; Sazer, 2005; Kitamura et al., 2007; Tanaka & Tanaka, 2009). This transient detachment between KT and MT may Olaparib be specific in organisms (such as S. cerevisiae and C. albicans) in which only one MT interacts with a KT (Ding et al., 1993; Joglekar et al., 2008; Thakur & Sanyal, 2011). Interestingly, SPBs in S. pombe remain outside the nuclear envelope during interphase. Following mitotic initiation, the duplicated SPBs penetrate the nuclear membrane (Ding et al., 1997). The

KT is associated with 2–3 MTs in fission yeast (Winey et al., 1995). Therefore, budding yeasts, fission yeasts and metazoans exhibit obvious divergence in timing of commencement 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase of KT–MT interaction, the number of MTs associated with a KT and the fate of the nuclear membrane during the cell cycle. Early microscopy of mitotic chromosomes in human cells revealed that the human KT is a tri-layered structure (Brinkley & Stubblefield, 1966; McEwen et al., 2007): inner and outer layers that are bridged by a middle layer. Proteins that form the inner layer interact directly with the CEN DNA, while the outer layer proteins form the chromosomal attachment sites of the MT plus ends. Proteins in the middle layer act as linkers between the inner and outer KT (Cheeseman & Desai, 2008). However, in unicellular organisms like yeasts, the structure of a KT cannot be ascertained due to the small-sized cells. Immunostaining of a KT protein in these organisms appears as a single conspicuous focus of clustered KTs at nuclear peripheral regions and close to spindle pole bodies (Meluh et al., 1998; Takahashi et al., 2000; Sanyal & Carbon, 2002). All KTs remain clustered together throughout the cell cycle in S. cerevisiae (Anderson et al., 2009; Duan et al., 2010) and C.

The following are examples of drugs which are metabolized through cytochrome P450 enzyme system; rifampicin, rifabutin and azole antifungals. They are likely to have significant drug interactions, which may require change in drug dose, additional monitoring or coadministration should be avoided. As data and advice changes frequently, Erlotinib manufacturer this information should always be interpreted in conjunction with the manufacturer’s information (http://www.medicines.org.uk). Other useful web-based reference sources include the Liverpool

HIV drug information website (http://www.hiv-druginteractions.org) and the Toronto Clinic website (http://www.hivclinic.ca/main/drugs_interact.html). “
“International studies suggesting that 20–37% of HIV-positive patients have diagnosable depression may underestimate the prevalence of this condition. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of depression among HIV-positive patients in an out-patient clinic in Denmark and to detect factors of importance for the development of depression. In 2005, a population of 205 HIV-positive patients was included in a questionnaire-based

study. The Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) was used to assess the prevalence and severity of depressive symptoms. Patients with a BDI score of 20 or above were offered a clinical evaluation by a consultant psychiatrist. Symptoms Ponatinib in vitro of depression (BDI>14) were observed in 77 (38%) patients and symptoms of major depression (BDI≥20) in 53 (26%). Eighteen patients subsequently started treatment with anti-depressants. In a reduced logistic regression model, self-reported stress, loneliness, constant thoughts about HIV and being in a difficult financial situation were associated with risk of depression. Patients at risk of major depression were nearly six times more likely to have missed at least one dose of highly active antiretroviral

therapy (HAART) in the 4 days prior to assessment (odds ratio 5.7, 95% confidence interval 1.7–18.6). There was a dose–response trend in relation to unsafe sex (P=0.03). The study found that depression was under-diagnosed among HIV-positive patients and was associated with stress, loneliness, a difficult financial situation, low adherence and unsafe sex. Screening for depression Buspirone HCl should be conducted regularly to provide full evaluation and relevant psychiatric treatment. This is particularly important at the time of diagnosis and before initiating HAART. International studies have revealed high rates of depressive symptoms in individuals with HIV [1]. A meta-analysis of data from 10 studies provided information on 2596 participants – primarily homosexual men – and found that HIV-positive patients were twice as likely to be diagnosed with a major depression compared to healthy individuals [2]. Several studies on HIV suggest that 20% to 37% of infected individuals may have a diagnosable depression [3–6].

00pm to 3.45pm Keynote 4:   Professor Tony Avery   Professor of Primary Healthcare, University of Nottingham   Patient reporting of ADRs to the UK Yellow Card Scheme 3.45pm to 4.00pm Conference Summary, Prizes and Handover “
“Objectives  Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic used in the Selleck EGFR inhibitor treatment of schizophrenia. Due to the patient profile there is a high rate of repackaging of clozapine into dose administration

aids (DAAs). Because of reports from hospital pharmacists about discoloration of returned clozapine tablets that have been repackaged into DAAs, the aim of this study was to evaluate the chemical, physical and photostability of these tablets repackaged into a DAA. Method  Clozapine tablets were repackaged into DAAs and evaluated for physicochemical stability over a 6-week period at a controlled room temperature (25 ± 1°C; 60 ± 1.5% relative humidity (RH)) and accelerated conditions (40 ± 1°C; 75 ± 1.5% RH). In addition, photostability studies were performed according to the International Committee

on Harmonisation (ICH) guidelines. LY2157299 ic50 Key findings  Chemical stability was confirmed for all storage conditions, including for those photostability (ICH conditions), with the clozapine content occurring within the British Pharmacopoeial (BP) range of 90–110%. Although the physical stability was confirmed for all tests at room temperature (weight uniformity, hardness, friability, disintegration and dissolution), under accelerated conditions the disintegration test did not meet BP requirements. However, the subsequent dissolution Resminostat test was successful

with 85% of clozapine dissolving in 45 min. Conclusions  This study illustrates that clozapine, when correctly repackaged, maintains its physical and chemical stability for 6 weeks. As no discoloration of the tablets was observed, it is assumed that the reports received were as a result of improper handling by patients. Based on these findings, it is recommended that patients be advised on the correct handling and storage of their DAAs. “
“To identify reasons for poor adherence to antibiotic intravenous-to-oral switch guidelines and to explore the possible solutions. To rate the importance of the barriers and solutions identified, as perceived by a multidisciplinary expert panel. Three-round Delphi study in an expert panel comprising doctors, nurses and pharmacists, with concurrent semi-structured interviews. The three rounds of the Delphi were completed by 13 out of the 30 healthcare professionals invited to participate. No nurses were included in the final round.

11 and 15%, respectively; P=0.0001), heterosexual (56, 16 and 20%, respectively; P=0.0001) and Black African (45, 9 and 13%, respectively;

P=0.0001) than either late starters or ideal starters. As would be expected from the way the groups were defined, there was a significantly shorter time between first presentation and starting HAART for late presenters compared with the other two groups (medians 0.1, 4.9 and 3.3 years, respectively; P=0.0001). Median follow-up after starting HIF inhibitor HAART was slightly longer among late starters (median 3.6 years) than either late presenters (3.4 years) or ideal starters (2.9 years; P=0.0001). In terms of initial regimen, the majority of patients in all groups started two NRTIs with an NNRTI (Table 1). The proportions of late presenters, late starters and ideal starters commencing a boosted PI-based regimen were 21, 19 and 17%, respectively (P=0.003). Patient disposition at 48 and 96 weeks is described in Figure 1. By 48 weeks, 86.4, 88.0 and 80.4% of late presenters, late starters and ideal starters remained under follow-up, respectively (P=0.0001). Most were receiving antiretroviral therapy (81.1% of all patients and 95.3% of those remaining under follow-up, with no major differences between late presenters and late starters) and 81.7 and 84.9% of those

on antiretroviral therapy had a viral load and CD4 cell count measurement, respectively, selleck inhibitor Selleck LBH589 within the week 40–56 window. By 96 weeks, 82.2, 83.2 and 81.5% of late presenters, late starters and ideal starters, respectively, who were alive and under follow-up at week 48 remained under follow-up (P=0.63). Again, most were on antiretroviral therapy (77.8% of those under

follow-up at week 48; 94.6% of those alive and under follow-up at week 96), and 81.0 and 83.1% of those on antiretroviral therapy at this time had a viral load and CD4 cell count in the week 88–104 window, respectively. Proportions with viral suppression to <50 copies/mL at 48 weeks were 82.4% for late presenters, 85.5% for late starters and 89.3% for ideal starters (P=0.0001). By multivariable analysis (adjusted for gender, mode of infection, ethnicity, age, calendar year, AIDS status and initial regimen), the difference between virological outcomes in late presenters and late starters was not significant at week 48, although there was a marginally nonsignificant difference in virological outcome between late starters and ideal starters (Table 2); by 96 weeks, the differences were further reduced and remained nonsignificant. The median CD4 cell count increase at 48 weeks was significantly lower for late presenters (161 cells/μL) than for late starters (206 cells/μL); while there remained a significant difference in CD4 count increase between the two groups at 96 weeks, this difference was reduced.

bifidum PRL2010 cells, which were cultivated in the presence of different complex carbohydrates such as FOS or GOS. Interestingly, PRL2010 transformants were isolated when cells were grown in MRS supplemented

with FOS at a final content of 16% as well as with MRS enriched by 10% GOS with a transformation efficiency of 103 CFU μg−1 DNA (Table 2). Such findings may be explained by the effects that these oligosaccharides have on the composition of the cell wall as well as on other cell envelope constituents (e.g. decreased thickness of capsular polysaccharide layers and/or reduction of the cell wall/capsular complexity). Furthermore, the presence of a high amount of complex carbohydrates in the growth medium may exert a protective action against the stressful conditions encountered by bifidobacterial cells during transformation (Guglielmetti et al., 2008). Previous studies Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor have reported that the composition of the bacterial cell wall, and consequently the efficiency of DNA uptake, seems to be significantly influenced by the growth phase of the bacterial cells (Rossi et al., 1996). Thus, based on the growth curve of B. bifidum PRL2010 cells cultivated on MRS, we harvested PRL2010 cells at different

time points corresponding to early (OD value of 0.4) and late exponential phase (OD value of 0.7) (Fig. 1). Subsequently, such cells were submitted to the electroporation procedure, and corresponding transformation Selleckchem CH5424802 efficiency was evaluated (Table 2). Notably, the maximal transformation efficiency

was observed when PRL2010 cells were collected at late log phase (Table 2). Incubation of the cells in an electroporation buffer was found to be crucial for Bifidobacterium transformation (Argnani et al., 1996). We observed that storage Decitabine cell line of bacterial cells for two hours before electroporation at 4 °C in an electroporation buffer composed of 16% FOS or 10% GOS and 1 mM citrate buffer (pH 6.0) significantly improved their transformation efficiency, increasing from < 102 to 104 CFU per μg DNA. Under these conditions, we assume that the low molarity of ammonium citrate acts as an osmotic stabilizer that supports controlled cell envelope removal/degradation without affecting cell viability, which may then result in improved cell wall permeability for exogenous DNA. Resistances of 100 or 200 Ω and voltages between 7.5 and 12.5 kV cm−1 were tested. Optimal results were obtained when the voltage applied to the cuvette was 12.5 kV cm−1 and the resistance was set at 200 Ω. When the resistance was set at 100 Ω, no transformants was observed. The transformation efficiency achieved with a voltage of 7.5 kV cm−1 and a resistance of 200 Ω was low (Table 2). After incubation, the transformants were selected on MRS supplemented with chloramphenicol and incubated at 37 °C. The presumptive transformants were verified by colony PCR using primers based on the DNA sequence of pNZ8048.

15 m sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.4 (for electron microscopy, 0.2% glutaraldehyde was added to the fixative)] and postfixed for the desired time (see Table 1), rinsed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), cryoprotected overnight in 30% sucrose in PBS, frozen with powdered

dry ice and stored at –80 °C. Tissue for biochemistry and RNA analysis was immediately homogenised in buffer containing the appropriate enzyme inhibitors, frozen and stored in sealed containers at –80 °C. 1 : 1000 1 : 300 IHC;60–90 min IHC-EM; 2.5 h WB IHC; 1–3 h Mice were anesthetised as above, and perfused transcardially with 20 mL PBS followed by 50–70 mL freshly prepared fixative (4% paraformaldehyde dissolved in 0.15 m sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.4). The brain was extracted and postfixed for 3–4 h in the same fixative. It was then rinsed in PBS, cryoprotected in 30% sucrose in PBS and stored at –80 °C. Mice were decapitated and the brain immediately extracted on ice, cut in blocks Deforolimus containing the region of interest, homogenised frozen and stored in sealed containers at –80 °C. Sections were cut from frozen blocks with a sliding microtome at a thickness of 40 μm and were collected free-floating in I-BET-762 manufacturer PBS. They

were incubated under continuous agitation in primary solution [Tris buffer (pH 7.4) containing 0.2 Triton X-100, 2% normal serum and the primary antibodies of choice (see Table 1)] for 15–48 h at 4 °C, washed in Tris buffer and incubated for 30–60 min at room temperature in secondary antibodies coupled to biotin or to a fluorochrome. They were washed again, and either processed further for immunoperoxidase staining (Vectastain Elite kit; Vector Laboratories,

Burlingham, CA, USA, following the manufacturer’s instructions) or washed, mounted, coverslipped with Dako fluorescence mounting medium and stored in the dark. All antibodies tested have been extensively characterised for specificity (see Table 1). The comparison of staining patterns in perfusion-fixed and immersion-fixed tissue confirmed the specificity of the immunohistochemical reaction in the latter tissue. After postfixation, tissue was rinsed several times in 0.1 m phosphate buffer, and cut into 100-μm-thick coronal slices with a vibrating microtome. Slices were processed for pre-embedding Branched chain aminotransferase immunogold labeling as described (Fritschy et al., 2006), using antibodies against gephyrin (Table 1) and secondary antibodies (Fab fragments) coupled to fluronanogold (1.4 nm), followed by gold intensification, using the manufacturer’s kit (Nanoprobes Inc., Yaphank, NY, USA). Slices were then intensified with osmium tetroxide, dehydrated and flat-embedded in resin. Ultra-thin sections were examined with a Jeol JEM-1010 electron microscope and photographed with a digital camera. Brain lysis and sample preparation, protein separation and immunoblotting of amyloid-precursor protein (APP) and Tau were performed as described (Krstic et al., 2012a).

A blastn sequence similarity search showed that the majority of the sequences (56%) were homologous to the uncultured bacterial species, underlining the vast untapped bacterial diversity. “
“Endophytic fungi colonize plants without causing symptoms of disease and can enhance the resistance

of their host to pathogens. We cultivated 53 fungal strains from wild lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) and investigated their effects on pathogens using in vitro assays and experiments in planta. Most strains were annotated as Rhizopus, Fusarium, Penicillium, CP-690550 concentration Cochliobolus, and Artomyces spp. by the sequence of their 18S rRNA gene. In vitro confrontation assays between endophytes and three pathogens (the bacteria Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae and Enterobacter sp. strain FCB1, and the fungus Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) revealed strong and mainly symmetric reciprocal effects: endophyte and pathogen either mutually inhibited (mainly Enterobacter FCB1 and Colletotrichum) or facilitated (P. syringae) the growth of each other. In planta, the endophytes had a strong inhibitory effect on P. syringae when they colonized the plant before the bacterium, whereas infection was facilitated when P. syringae colonized the plant before the endophyte. Infection with Enterobacter FCB1 was facilitated when the bacterium colonized the plant before or on the same selleck chemicals llc day with the endophyte, but not when the endophyte was

present before the bacterium. The order of arrival determines whether fungal endophytes enhance

plant resistance to bacterial pathogens or facilitate disease. “
“Deferoxamine (DFO), an FDA-approved iron chelator used for treatment of iron poisoning, affects bacteria as iron availability is intimately connected with growth and several virulence determinants. However, little is known about the effect on oral pathogens. In this study, the effect of DFO on Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major periodontopathogen which has an essential growth requirement for hemin (Fe3+-protoporphyrin IX), was evaluated. The viability of P. gingivalisW83 was not affected by 0.06–0.24 mM DFO, whereas the doubling time of the bacterium was considerably prolonged by DFO. The inhibitory effect was evident at earlier stages of growth and reduced by supplemental iron. UV-visible spectra using the pigments from Progesterone P. gingivalis cells grown on blood agar showed that DFO inhibited μ-oxo bisheme formation by the bacterium. DFO decreased accumulation and energy-driven uptake of hemin by P. gingivalis. Antibacterial effect of H2O2 and metronidazole against P. gingivalis increased in the presence of DFO. Collectively, DFO is effective for hemin deprivation in P. gingivalis suppressing the growth and increasing the susceptibility of the bacterium to other antimicrobial agents such as H2O2 and metronidazole. Further experiments are necessary to show that DFO may be used as a therapeutic agent for periodontal disease.