A key feature of several of these agents is the potential to induce tolerogenic effects that outlast generalized suppression of the immune system and are therefore of particular interest for future interventions in T1D. Fc receptor non-binding anti-CD3 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) show much promise in preliminary trials, as a short course of treatment can delay the post-diagnosis High Content Screening decline in stimulated C-peptide for up to 5 years, with depletion of T cells evident for a limited period of time (< 1 months) [13]. These agents demonstrate clearly that modulation of β cell autoimmunity in humans can be achieved

without the need for continuous immunosuppression. A recent trial using anti-CD20 (Rituxan) to target B lymphocytes in patients with recent-onset T1D [12] found that the window between generalized immunosuppression and tolerance towards β cells appears to be smaller than that of anti-CD3. This trial was nevertheless noteworthy because of the well-documented safety profile of B lymphocyte depletion. It is also known that B lymphocyte infiltration is a significant late-stage event

in T1D [14]. Thus, as no single agent demonstrates the ability to induce durable disease remission, anti-CD20 therapy could serve as a rapid, anti-inflammatory component of a rational combinational intervention [14,15]. Indeed, a further lesson from the past 20 years is that the immunological defects Protease Inhibitor Library manufacturer responsible for T1D are multiple and complex, and are not likely to be addressed with a single agent. It is more probable that multiple pathways will need to be modulated in order to achieve a lasting remission. For example, down-regulation of the inflammatory response, elimination of autoreactive effector

and memory T cells, and the induction and long-term maintenance of T and B regulatory cell populations may all be required in varied degrees to induce robust disease remission. Furthermore, given the level of β cell destruction observed at the onset of overt disease, the ideal intervention would be one that not only halts the autoimmune response, but also enhances Amisulpride β cell function or stimulates regeneration. Drugs that have shown promise either in preclinical or early clinical trials fall into a few general classes: T cell modulators [anti-CD3, anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG)], B cell-depleting agents (anti-CD20), anti-inflammatory molecules [anti-interleukin (IL)-1, anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α], antigen-specific therapies [insulin, glutamic acid decarboxylase-65 (GAD65), islet autoantigenic peptides [16]] and incretin mimetics (insulinotropic agents, such as exenatide) (see Fig. 1 and also an earlier comprehensive review by Staeva-Vieira [17]).