coli serotype 055:B5, Sigma-Aldrich), lipoteichoic acid (LTA, Invivogen), flagellin (FLA-ST Ultrapure, Invivogen), CpG (ODN 2336, Invivogen), Polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly(I:C), Sigma-Aldrich), IFN-β (Invitrogen), R848 (Invivogen),

ssRNA40-LyoVec (Invivogen), Poly(I:C) high molecular weight (HMW, Invivogen), Poly(I:C)-LyoVec LMW (Invivogen), Poly(I:C)-LyoVec HMW (Invivogen), or combinations of ligands. Combinations of ligands were, unless described otherwise, added simultaneous. For LPS, an extra purification step was performed as described previously [[48]]. For determination of the viral titer, A549 cells (ATCC, CCL-185) were infected with RSV A2 for 24 h, trypsinized and fixed with 80% acetone. Cells were immunostained with FITC-conjugated mouse monoclonal antibody to RSV nucleoprotein (Abcam), followed by FACS analysis. Determination of the percentage of infection Selleckchem CAL 101 was repeated three times and the viral titer was calculated from the dilution at which 50% infection was seen. After 4 and 24 h, the supernatants were collected and stored at −20°C for cytokine measurement. The cells were resuspended in 150 μL RLT buffer with 1% β-mercaptoethanol and stored at −80°C for quantitative PCR. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-10 concentrations were measured in the cell supernatants by commercial ELISA kits (Pelikine

Compact, Selleckchem Y27632 Sanquin, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) according to the instructions of the manufacturer. TNF-α and IL-1β had a detection limit of 20 pg/mL, for IL-10 the detection limit was 7 pg/mL. Synergy was expressed as the ratio of cytokine response to

the combination of two ligands divided by the sum of cytokine responses obtained with both ligands alone; (virus + ligand)/((virus) + (ligand)). When cytokine response was as low as detection threshold for all individual ligands as well as the combination of ligands, we set the Transmembrane Transproters inhibitor ratio to 1 in order to prevent a false positive down regulation. Total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), genomic DNA was removed using TurboDNase (Ambion, Foster City, CA, USA) and cDNA was synthesized using SuperScripttm Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Quantitative PCR measurements for IFN-β (NM_002176.2), TNF-α (NM_000594.2), IL-1β (NM_000576.2), NOD2 (NM_022162.1), RIG-I (NM_014314.3), TLR3 (NM_003265.2), and GAPDH (NM_002046.3) were performed using commercially available Taqman Gene Expression Assays (Applied Biosystems, Carlsbad, USA). The PCR conditions were as follows: initial denaturation for 10 min at 95°C, followed by 40 cycles of 15 s at 95°C and 1min at 60°C. Mean relative mRNA expression from two replicate measurements was normalized to GAPDH expression in each sample.