Furthermore, experimental data generated using HVC-infected chimpanzees demonstrate that the miR-122 antisense locked

nucleic acid (LNA) SPC3649 is able to clear both the HCV 1a and the 1b genotypes AZD2281 solubility dmso 40. These data hold much promise for novel anti-HCV therapies. In the case of HCV-induced inflammation, if the target site for miR-155 in the TNF 3′ UTR was to be blocked, this could provide a new strategy to limit TNF expression and TNF-associated activities. Another approach could be to specifically boost the effect that miR-21 has on PDCD4 and thus also generate an anti-inflammatory effect. These types of studies are worth pursuing, since targeting both miR-155 and miR-122 would effectively boost the resolution of inflammation. A second example where the targeting of miRNAs regulated by TLRs might hold promise is in myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). MDS results from selleck the ineffective production of myeloid cells from stem cells in the BM and arises at the stage of primitive CD34+ hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells due to ineffective hematopoiesis. One of the most common forms is the 5q-syndrome, which results in the deletion of a segment on chromosome 5, long-arm position 32 (5q32) 41–43. The commonly deleted region at 5q32 contains 40

genes and a number of miRNAs, including miR-145 and miR-146a. Starczynowski et al. 41 found that 5q-MDS individuals had low levels of miR-145 and miR-146a, thereby confirming their deletion 41. A key target for miR-145 is known to be the adapter Mal, which is required for signaling by TLR2 and, especially, TLR4 Cell press 42. As mentioned in the miR-146 section, miR-146 targets IRAK1 and TRAF6. The knockdown of miR-145 and miR-146a or, in particular, the enforced expression of TRAF6 in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells transplanted into mice results in

thrombocytosis, neutropenia, and megakaryocytic dysplacia 41. These changes lead to the induction/overexpression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, leading to chronic inflammation, which again appears to promote tumorogenesis in this disease. Other studies, e.g. 43, have failed to find a correlation between 5q-MDS and downregulation of miR-145–miR-146a, however; hence further analysis is needed. Nonetheless, blockade of the Mal/TRAF6 pathway could prove to be therapeutically useful in MDS. Clearly, the targeting of miRNAs for therapeutic purposes is at an early stage; however, given the roles of miR-146a, miR-155, and miR-21 in the control of inflammation, and, in particular, in macrophage function, they remain of interest for future drug development. An important consideration is in vivo validation, and Table 1 summarizes this aspect for these miRNAs. As summarized in Table 1, deletion of miR-155, miR-146, and miR-21 has serious consequences in mice, e.g. autoimmune disease.