gov; study identifier: NCT01316822, NCT01346358, NCT01440959, NCT01444404,

and NCT01004861). These studies should provide more information about whether or not M-CSF/M-CSFR inhibitors are of value in cancer therapy and explore further the role of macrophage depletion. Other chemoattractants for macrophages, such as VEGF, CXCL-12 and CCL5, also seem to be potential targets for TAM depletion and tumour rejection. For instance, selectively inhibiting VEGFR-2 reduced macrophage density and prevented tumour growth and angiogenesis in orthotropic pancreatic and breast tumours.[42, 43] In addition, repressing either the CXCL12/C-X-C motif chemokine receptor www.selleckchem.com/products/MG132.html 4 (CXCR4) or the placental growth factor (PIGF)/VEGFR-1 pathway reduced macrophage count.[11, 44] As the tumour microenvironment is usually hypoxic and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) are transcriptional activators for VEGF and CXCR4 genes[45]; HIFs are naturally suggested to play a role in macrophage recruitment. It was reported that HIF-1α deficiency reduced macrophage density, tumour angiogenesis and invasion www.selleckchem.com/p38-MAPK.html in murine glioblastoma via blocking the matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9)/VEGF

pathway.[46] Recent work has shown that HIF-2α mediated macrophage migration to the tumour microenvironment partly through regulating M-CSFR and CXCR4.[47] Therefore, HIF inhibitors may be considered as anti-tumour candidates not only for their potential to inhibit angiogenesis, but also for their effects on macrophage recruitment. To kill TAMs locally is another approach to deplete pro-tumoral TAMs. Two alternative strategies have been tried. One Dichloromethane dehalogenase is to directly induce macrophage apoptosis using chemical reagents, immunotoxin-conjugated mAbs or attenuated bacteria; the other is to trigger the immune cells, T lymphocytes for example, to recognize and abrogate TAMs. Bisphosphonates, generally packed in liposomes, have become prominent drugs for macrophage depletion.[48] Two bisphosphonates, clodronate and zoledronic acid, are extensively used in experimental investigations. Several lines of evidence show that clodronate has a selective cytotoxicity to macrophages

and this clodronate-induced depletion of macrophages can result in the regression of tumour growth, angiogenesis and metastasis.[49-51] Zoledronic acid is a clinical drug for cancer therapy, especially for breast cancers. This compound selectively depletes MMP9-expressing TAMs.[23, 52] Importantly, current evidence indicates that zoledronic acid not only inhibits macrophage accumulation, but also impairs the differentiation of myeloid cells to TAMs and induces the tumoricidal activity of macrophages.[52-55] Given that zoledronic acid can prolong survival in cancer patients,[56-58] it is important to clarify whether or not TAM depletion contributes to this efficacy. In addition to clodronate and zoledronic acid, other bisphosphonates (e.g.