In general, mammals act as apex predators in tapeworm life cycles, playing host to adult, enteric stages. In the unique case of taeniid cyclophyllideans, in which

mammals also act as intermediate hosts (24), they are the primary prey items of larger mammals, such as in the rodent/fox cycles of Echinococcus, Mesocestoides and some Taenia species (25). With regard to human infection with tapeworms, there is at least some evidence that the Taenia species infecting humans evolved before the development of agriculture, animal husbandry and the domestication of cattle and swine (24,26), indicating that humans were responsible for introducing Taenia solium and T. saginata BMS-354825 to contemporary agricultural cycles. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis showed that these species evolved in humans independently (26): T. solium associated with the tapeworms of hyenas and T. saginata with those of lions.

This unsettling scenario suggests that in prehistoric times, food webs selected a role for ourselves not only as definitive hosts, but also as intermediate hosts, in transmission cycles including larger carnivores as the apex predators. Table 1 summarizes the general characteristics of tapeworm genomes as represented by three taeniid and one hymenolepidid cyclophyllidean species. At present, the only published flatworm genomes are those of the human bloodflukes Schistosoma mansoni (27) and S. japonicum (28), but available draft data for the planarian model Schmidtea mTOR inhibitor Rebamipide mediterranea (29) and the ‘turbellarian’Macrostomum lignano (30) provide important reference genomes of free-living flatworms. By comparing parasitic and free-living species, identification of both loss and expansion of gene families will provide the most comprehensive picture to date of the effects of evolving obligate parasitism, allowing its signature to be compared with that in other animal groups, such as the nematodes (31). Much of this signature will surely relate factors evolved to counter host immune defences, and comparative genomics thus hold great promise for advancing the

immunology of parasitic flatworms. Tapeworm genomes are small in size at ∼110 Mb, compared with 363 Mb in Schistosoma (27), 700 Mb in Schmidtea and ∼330–1100 Mb in Macrostomum (http://www.genomesize.com/index.php). Differences may be due to the fact that tapeworm genomes contain fewer mobile genetic elements and retroposons than trematodes or planarians, in which they are common (32,33). However, it is clear that there has also been significant gene loss. For example, the components for de novo synthesis of cholesterol are missing, as is ornithine decarboxylase (a key enzyme in spermidine/putrescine biosynthesis), and these essential components must therefore be acquired from the host. Indeed, the complete loss of a gut has presumably resulted in the loss of many enzymes.