In order

to maintain product integrity many vaccines (particularly live vaccines) must be stored at cold temperatures (≤4°C). The maintenance of the vaccine at this temperature from production site to distribution site, and medical office or clinic, is referred to as the ‘cold chain’. Maintaining the cold chain is much less of a challenge in resource-rich countries, but can be a major barrier to vaccine implementation in resource-limited areas. Ongoing research designed to increase our understanding of vaccine degradation may address the problems associated with cold chain management and lead to the development of thermostable Atezolizumab order vaccines. Modifying vaccine formulations to increase tolerance to temperature fluctuations is likely to increase the shelf-life of the product and reduce transport and wastage issues. The level of antigen presentation which occurs with some current vaccines selleckchem may sometimes be insufficient to drive

long-lasting immune responses of high quality (see Chapter 3 – Vaccine antigens). This may be due to inadequate exposure of the antigen to immature antigen-presenting cells (APCs) rapid or subimmunogenic degradation or sequestration of antigens, or lack of immunogenicity due to the physical presentation of the antigen. The discovery and refinement of new and varied options for antigen presentation is expected to allow the design of vaccines to produce specific immune profiles. Some of these technologies have been shown to facilitate oral delivery to target mucosal immune responses and also trigger both innate and adaptive immune systems, including T- and B-cell effector and memory responses. Candidate viral vector vaccines utilise a non-pathogenic virus to carry and subsequently induce expression of genes that produce immunogenic foreign proteins at high levels in the host. These are taken up by immature Tenoxicam APCs, and have been shown to lead to a robust, long-lasting immune response to the target antigen (Figure 6.4). Viral vector vaccines, eg recombinant poxvirus vaccines, can be administered mucosally to stimulate mucosal immune responses.

The attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara (rMVA) vectors are showing promise as mucosal delivery vectors. Pre-existing immunity to the viral vaccine vector is an impediment to successful use of this approach. As ways to avoid anti-vector immunity, viruses can be attenuated or inactivated, by deleting or replacing pathogenic genes. Figure 6.4 demonstrates how viral vaccine vectors are made. DNA expressing an immunogenic transgene (the vaccine antigen) is inserted into the viral vector genome for expression following administration into the recipient; expression of the vaccine antigen can be boosted by using a variety of DNA promoters. If the viral vector is no longer able to grow and replicate, the virus is grown using a cell line (a so-called complementing cell line) that has been engineered to produce the missing viral product.