In spite of intensive syphilis-targeted public health control initiatives,

including the CDC’s National Plan to Eliminate Syphilis from the US [24] and [25] and the WHO’s Initiative for the Global Elimination of Congenital Syphilis [26], the goal of syphilis elimination has not Selleckchem Talazoparib been achieved. Although the reasons for failure are undoubtedly multifactorial, partial responsibility can be attributed to the complexity of syphilis diagnosis and treatment, and to lack of access or utilization of prenatal screening programs. First, primary syphilis chancres may go undetected if they present in an area that is difficult to visualize (e.g. cervix, throat or anus/rectum) due to their well-documented painless http://www.selleckchem.com/products/INCB18424.html nature [27]. Additionally, syphilis lesions are prone to clinical misdiagnosis, due to their pleomorphic appearance and lack of physician familiarity with the manifestations of syphilis. Secondary syphilis presents as a very mild to severe generalized rash that may go un-noticed by the patient or may mimic a wide range of conditions [28]. Second, the traditional diagnostic screening algorithm comprises a sequence of diagnostic

assays that detect antibodies to lipoidal (e.g. rapid plasma regain [RPR]) and treponemal antigens (e.g. T. pallidum particle agglutination [TPPA]). These assays are generally not available in the clinic and thus their diagnostic success depends on high patient compliance

to return for test results. New point-of-care tests may increase clinic-based serological screening, but their reliance on treponemal antigens makes interpretation of reactive results (which could be due to a prior treated syphilis infection rather than a current active infection) difficult to interpret [29]. Third, the need for parenteral administration of penicillin decreases the likelihood that appropriate treatment will be received nearly in resource-poor settings which contain the majority of syphilis infections. Fourth, antenatal care (ANC) is not always available or sought. Estimates from 2008 show that, of 1.36 million pregnant women presenting with syphilis, 20% had not attended ANC and 66% of infected women who did attend ANC still had adverse outcomes due to lack of either syphilis testing or treatment [30]. Lastly, syphilis control solely by diagnosis and treatment will not decrease the risk of HIV transmission/acquisition. Syphilis treatment-seeking is triggered primarily by signs of early syphilis; such patients may have already missed the window of opportunity for reducing HIV risk, as the ulcerative primary stage of syphilis has the highest risk for HIV acquisition and transmission [31]. Elimination of syphilis infections as a risk factor for HIV will only be fully realized through prevention of syphilis by vaccine development.