Racial disparities in HIV prevalence are profound, both between regions and within regions. These disparities are not often discussed, perhaps because it is assumed that they are driven by stigmatizing socio-behavioural factors such as sexual concurrency or promiscuity, partner violence and so on. While such factors may be important in some contexts, the purpose of this review has been

to emphasize that biological factors such as endemic co-infections and immunology also play a key role. To develop better prevention tools, it is critical Selleckchem Erismodegib that communities, researchers and policy makers come together to discuss and investigate these tremendous disparities in an open and non-judgmental fashion. This work was supported by grants from

the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (RK, HET-85518; LRM and DC, salary support). Study sponsors played no role in the writing of the manuscript or decision to submit for selleck chemicals llc publication. No author has any financial or personal relationship posing a conflict of interest in relation to this study. Study concept and initial draft: RK; manuscript revisions: CRC, TJY, DC, WT, LRM, OA, JK, RR. “
“Class switching and plasma cell differentiation occur at a high level within all mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues. The different classes of membrane immunoglobulin heavy chains are associated with the Igα/Igβ heterodimer within the B-cell receptor (BCR). Whether BCR isotypes convey specific signals adapted to the corresponding differentiation stages remains debated but IgG and IgA membranes have been suggested to promote plasma cell differentiation. We investigated the impact of blocking expression of the IgA-class BCR through a ‘αΔtail’ targeted mutation, deleting the Cα immunoglobulin

second gene membrane exon. This allowed us to evaluate to what extent class switching and plasma cell differentiation can be concurrent processes, allowing some αΔtail+/+ B cells with an IgM BCR to directly differentiate into IgA plasma cells and yield serum secreted IgA in spite of the absence of membrane IgA+ B lymphocytes. By contrast, in secretions the secretory IgA was very low, indicating that J-chain-positive plasma cells producing secretory IgA overwhelmingly differentiate from previously class-switched membrane IgA+ memory B cells. In addition, although mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues are a major site for plasma cell accumulation, αΔtail+/+ mice showed that the gut B-cell lineage homeostasis is not polarized toward plasma cell differentiation through a specific influence of the membrane IgA BCR. Immunoglobulin A is considered a major actor in specific mucosal immunity.