The late Pliocene (after ∼ 3.5 Ma) was characterized by a distinct increase in the relative abundance of Uvigerina proboscidea (a well-known indicator of high surface water productivity; Gupta and Srinivasan, 1992, Rai and Srinivasan, 1994, Rai and Singh, 2001 and Rai et al., 2007, and others) and the significant Ipilimumab in vitro development of high food-exploiting faunal assemblages (i.e. the U. proboscidea and Bulimina aculeata assemblages), along with a decrease in faunal diversity and higher percentages of total

infaunal taxa. This was also a time of greater percentages of high-productivity taxa and suboxic taxa. The above faunal changes reflect the development of a strong upwelling-led high-productivity system at the beginning of the late Pliocene in the eastern Indian Ocean. Wells et al. (1994) also recorded identical benthic foraminiferal and isotopic signals in the eastern Indian Ocean during the penultimate glaciation and suggested an increase

in surface water productivity due to the establishment of a zone of upwelling. The final closure of the Indonesian seaway during ∼ 4–3 Ma changed the source of the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) from the warm and saline south Pacific to the cooler and fresher north Pacific waters, which took a more westerly course. This, in turn, reduced the magnitude of the warm, southward-flowing Leeuwin Current and paved the way for the further northward flow of the cold Western Australian Current, which resulted in the marked shoaling of the thermocline in

the eastern Indian Ocean. It was probably Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Library molecular weight during this period that westerly equatorial winds also became stronger, which started to impinge on the west coast of Australia, and were accompanied by stronger tropical easterlies blowing off the Australian landmass ( Venkatarathnam & Biscaye 1977). These stronger offshore winds are thought to have been responsible for the intense offshore Ekman transport, causing potential upwelling of cold and Thymidine kinase nutrient-rich water and the development of higher surface water productivity at low latitudes off the west coast of Australia in the eastern Indian Ocean. Karas et al. (2009) also attributed the gradual freshening and related cooling (∼ 4 °C) of subsurface waters predominantly from ∼ 3.5 to 2.95 Ma to the gradual constriction of the Indonesian seaway and the related switch in the source of subsurface ITF waters from the warm and saline south Pacific to the cooler and fresher north Pacific. At the same time, Lisiecki & Raymo (2005) recorded globally low values of benthic δ18O with a small amplitude reflecting a low ice volume. The benthic Mg/Ca values do not suggest any distinct change in deep-sea temperatures either ( Billups & Schrag 2002). Karas et al. (2009) argued that the significant cooling of Indian Ocean subsurface waters was not a result of the global cooling that intensified the Northern Hemisphere glaciations.